Revisions and new entries in The Indosphere, a free encyclopedia of Indian civilization.https://theindosphere.com/https://theindosphere.com/swadeshi-movement/https://theindosphere.com/swadeshi-movement/The Swadeshi movement was a campaign to boycott British goods and promote Indian-made products, launched in Bengal in 1905 in protest against the partition of the province and lasting through the following decade as a major current in nationalist politics.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/thomas-macaulay/https://theindosphere.com/thomas-macaulay/Thomas Babington Macaulay was a British historian, essayist and Whig politician who served as the first Law Member of the Governor-General's Council in India, where he authored the 1835 Minute on Indian Education and chaired the commission that drafted the Indian Penal Code.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/udham-singh/https://theindosphere.com/udham-singh/Udham Singh was a Punjabi revolutionary who assassinated former Punjab Lieutenant Governor Michael O'Dwyer in London in 1940 in retribution for the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/vasco-da-gama/https://theindosphere.com/vasco-da-gama/Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese navigator who in 1498 became the first European to reach India by sea, opening a direct maritime route that led to Portuguese trade and, eventually, colonial presence on the subcontinent.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/vellore-mutiny/https://theindosphere.com/vellore-mutiny/The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 was an uprising by Indian sepoys of the Madras Army against the British East India Company garrison at Vellore Fort, triggered chiefly by new uniform regulations perceived as an attack on religious custom, and is regarded by historians as an early precursor to the far larger revolt of 1857.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/vernacular-press-act/https://theindosphere.com/vernacular-press-act/The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was a colonial law empowering British Indian magistrates to censor and restrict Indian-language newspapers suspected of publishing seditious material, repealed in 1881 amid strong nationalist opposition.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/vinayak-damodar-savarkar/https://theindosphere.com/vinayak-damodar-savarkar/Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was a nationalist revolutionary, writer and political ideologue whose 1923 pamphlet "Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu?" supplied the foundational political vocabulary of Hindu nationalism, and who later led the Hindu Mahasabha.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/warren-hastings/https://theindosphere.com/warren-hastings/Warren Hastings was a British East India Company administrator who served as the first Governor-General of Bengal from 1774 to 1785 and was later tried, and acquitted, on charges of corruption and abuse of power.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/william-amherst/https://theindosphere.com/william-amherst/William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst, was Governor-General of India from 1823 to 1828, whose tenure was dominated by the First Anglo-Burmese War and the capture of Bharatpur.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/william-bentinck/https://theindosphere.com/william-bentinck/Lord William Bentinck was Governor-General of India from 1828 to 1835, remembered chiefly for abolishing the practice of sati and for redirecting British Indian education policy toward English-medium instruction in Western subjects.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:19 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/partition-of-bengal-1905/https://theindosphere.com/partition-of-bengal-1905/The 1905 division of the Bengal Presidency by Viceroy Lord Curzon into two provinces along broadly religious lines, an act that provoked mass protest and the Swadeshi movement.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/permanent-settlement/https://theindosphere.com/permanent-settlement/The Permanent Settlement was a land revenue system introduced in 1793 by Governor-General Lord Cornwallis that fixed the tax owed by Bengal's zamindars in perpetuity and converted them into hereditary landowners.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/poona-pact/https://theindosphere.com/poona-pact/The Poona Pact was a September 1932 agreement between Mohandas K. Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar that replaced separate electorates for the Depressed Classes with reserved seats within a joint electorate.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/purna-swaraj/https://theindosphere.com/purna-swaraj/Purna Swaraj ("complete self-rule") was the declaration of full political independence as the Indian National Congress's official goal, adopted at its Lahore session in December 1929 and formally proclaimed on 26 January 1930.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/quit-india-movement/https://theindosphere.com/quit-india-movement/The Quit India Movement was a mass civil disobedience campaign launched by the Indian National Congress in August 1942 demanding an immediate end to British rule, met with swift, extensive government suppression that included the arrest of the entire senior Congress leadership within a day of the call.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/radcliffe-line/https://theindosphere.com/radcliffe-line/The Radcliffe Line is the boundary drawn in 1947 by British lawyer Cyril Radcliffe to partition British India into the new dominions of India and Pakistan, fixing the borders through Punjab and Bengal.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/rajendra-prasad/https://theindosphere.com/rajendra-prasad/Rajendra Prasad was an Indian independence movement leader and Congress politician from Bihar who presided over the Constituent Assembly and became the first President of India.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/ram-prasad-bismil/https://theindosphere.com/ram-prasad-bismil/Ram Prasad Bismil was a revolutionary nationalist and Hindi and Urdu poet who co-founded the Hindustan Republican Association and was executed for his leading role in the 1925 Kakori train robbery.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/reginald-dyer/https://theindosphere.com/reginald-dyer/Reginald Dyer was the British Indian Army officer who ordered troops to fire on an unarmed crowd at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in 1919, an act that became a defining atrocity of colonial rule in India.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/revolt-of-1857/https://theindosphere.com/revolt-of-1857/A large-scale uprising against East India Company rule that began among sepoys of the Bengal Army in May 1857 and spread across much of north and central India before being suppressed in 1858.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/richard-wellesley/https://theindosphere.com/richard-wellesley/Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, was Governor-General of British India from 1798 to 1805 whose subsidiary alliance system and wars against Mysore and the Marathas greatly expanded Company territory and power.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/robert-clive/https://theindosphere.com/robert-clive/Robert Clive was a British East India Company military officer and administrator whose victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 established Company control over Bengal.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/round-table-conferences/https://theindosphere.com/round-table-conferences/A series of three conferences held in London between 1930 and 1932 in which representatives of British India, the Indian princely states and British political parties discussed constitutional reform for India.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/rowlatt-act/https://theindosphere.com/rowlatt-act/A 1919 law passed by the Imperial Legislative Council that extended emergency wartime powers of detention without trial into peacetime, becoming a major flashpoint for Indian nationalist opposition.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/royal-indian-navy-mutiny/https://theindosphere.com/royal-indian-navy-mutiny/A five-day uprising by Indian ratings of the Royal Indian Navy in February 1946, beginning in Bombay and spreading to other ports, over service conditions and colonial rule.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/salt-march/https://theindosphere.com/salt-march/The Salt March was a 24-day protest walk led by Mohandas Gandhi in March–April 1930 from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi, where he broke the British salt law by producing salt from seawater, opening the Civil Disobedience Movement.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/sarojini-naidu/https://theindosphere.com/sarojini-naidu/Sarojini Naidu was a poet and nationalist leader who became a prominent figure in the Indian National Congress, the first Indian woman to serve as its president, and, after independence, the first woman to serve as governor of an Indian state.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/simon-commission/https://theindosphere.com/simon-commission/The Simon Commission was a British parliamentary body appointed in 1927 to review the working of the Government of India Act of 1919 and recommend further constitutional reform, boycotted across India because it included no Indian members.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/surat-split-1907/https://theindosphere.com/surat-split-1907/The Surat Split was the December 1907 breakup of the Indian National Congress into rival Moderate and Extremist factions at its annual session in Surat.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/surya-sen/https://theindosphere.com/surya-sen/Surya Sen was a Bengali schoolteacher and revolutionary who organised and led the 1930 Chittagong armoury raid against British colonial rule, for which he was later captured and executed.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:18 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-wavell/https://theindosphere.com/lord-wavell/British field marshal who served as Viceroy of India from 1943 to 1947, presiding over the final phase of colonial rule amid famine, failed constitutional talks and rising communal violence, before being replaced by Lord Mountbatten.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-hardinge-ii/https://theindosphere.com/lord-hardinge-ii/Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst, was Viceroy of India from 1910 to 1916, during whose tenure the imperial capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi and he survived an assassination attempt in 1912.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-ellenborough/https://theindosphere.com/lord-ellenborough/British statesman who served as Governor-General of India from 1842 to 1844, known for ending the First Anglo-Afghan War and annexing Sindh.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-lytton/https://theindosphere.com/lord-lytton/Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, was Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880, whose term combined the imperial spectacle of the 1877 Delhi Durbar with a severe famine, restrictive press and arms legislation, and a war with Afghanistan.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-irwin/https://theindosphere.com/lord-irwin/Edward Wood, 1st Baron Irwin, was Viceroy of India from 1926 to 1931, whose tenure spanned the Simon Commission boycott, the Salt March and Civil Disobedience Movement, and negotiation of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-chelmsford/https://theindosphere.com/lord-chelmsford/Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford, was Viceroy of India from 1916 to 1921, a term spanning both the constitutional concessions of the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms and the repression of the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-dufferin/https://theindosphere.com/lord-dufferin/British Viceroy of India from 1884 to 1888, whose tenure saw the annexation of Upper Burma and the founding of the Indian National Congress.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-willingdon/https://theindosphere.com/lord-willingdon/Freeman Freeman-Thomas, Marquess of Willingdon, was Viceroy of India from 1931 to 1936, whose tenure was dominated by the suppression of the second phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement and the passage of the Government of India Act 1935.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-curzon/https://theindosphere.com/lord-curzon/Lord Curzon was a British statesman who served as Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, remembered for administrative reforms, the 1905 partition of Bengal, and his resignation over a dispute with Commander-in-Chief Lord Kitchener.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-auckland/https://theindosphere.com/lord-auckland/British Governor-General of India from 1836 to 1842, chiefly remembered for launching the First Anglo-Afghan War, which ended in one of the most severe military disasters suffered by British forces in Asia.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-ripon/https://theindosphere.com/lord-ripon/George Robinson, first Marquess of Ripon, was Viceroy of India from 1880 to 1884, remembered for liberal reforms including repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, expansion of local self-government, and his sponsorship of the Ilbert Bill, which provoked fierce opposition from India's European community.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-minto-ii/https://theindosphere.com/lord-minto-ii/Gilbert Elliot, 4th Earl of Minto, was Viceroy of India from 1905 to 1910, a tenure marked by the agitation following the partition of Bengal, the founding of the All India Muslim League, and the constitutional reforms enacted jointly with Secretary of State John Morley.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-lansdowne/https://theindosphere.com/lord-lansdowne/British statesman who served as Viceroy of India from 1888 to 1894, overseeing modest legislative reform and the demarcation of the Durand Line with Afghanistan.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/individual-satyagraha/https://theindosphere.com/individual-satyagraha/Individual Satyagraha was a deliberately limited civil disobedience campaign launched by Mohandas Gandhi in October 1940, in which selected volunteers, one at a time, publicly opposed India's forced involvement in the Second World War and courted arrest.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/jallianwala-bagh-massacre/https://theindosphere.com/jallianwala-bagh-massacre/The 13 April 1919 killing of unarmed civilians by troops under Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer at a walled garden in Amritsar, Punjab, a defining atrocity of British rule in India.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-dalhousie/https://theindosphere.com/lord-dalhousie/Lord Dalhousie was a Scottish nobleman who served as Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, overseeing rapid infrastructural modernisation alongside an aggressive policy of annexation that included the Doctrine of Lapse.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/jawaharlal-nehru/https://theindosphere.com/jawaharlal-nehru/Jawaharlal Nehru was an Indian nationalist leader and the first Prime Minister of independent India, serving from 1947 until his death in 1964.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/jayaprakash-narayan/https://theindosphere.com/jayaprakash-narayan/A socialist political leader and freedom-movement activist, prominent in the Quit India Movement of 1942, who later became a central figure in the anti-corruption and anti-Emergency movement of the mid-1970s.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/john-lawrence/https://theindosphere.com/john-lawrence/John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence, was a British administrator who governed Punjab after its annexation and served as Viceroy of India from 1864 to 1869.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/john-shore/https://theindosphere.com/john-shore/John Shore, later 1st Baron Teignmouth, was Governor-General of Bengal from 1793 to 1798, remembered chiefly for continuing his predecessor Lord Cornwallis's policy of non-intervention in the affairs of Indian states.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/joseph-francois-dupleix/https://theindosphere.com/joseph-francois-dupleix/Joseph-Francois Dupleix was a French colonial administrator and Governor-General of French India who pioneered intervention in local succession disputes to extend European political and military influence in south India, chiefly in rivalry with the British East India Company.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/khan-abdul-ghaffar-khan/https://theindosphere.com/khan-abdul-ghaffar-khan/A Pashtun nationalist leader from the North-West Frontier Province who founded the Khudai Khidmatgar movement, a nonviolent resistance organisation allied with the Indian National Congress, and who opposed the Partition of India.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/kheda-satyagraha/https://theindosphere.com/kheda-satyagraha/The Kheda Satyagraha was a 1918 no-tax campaign in Gujarat led by Mohandas Gandhi and Vallabhbhai Patel, demanding land-revenue relief for farmers hit by crop failure.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/khilafat-movement/https://theindosphere.com/khilafat-movement/The Khilafat movement was a pan-Islamic political campaign by Indian Muslims between 1919 and 1924 to pressure the British government to preserve the Ottoman caliphate after the First World War, which merged with Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement to form the broadest joint Hindu-Muslim mobilisation of the early nationalist period.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/khudiram-bose/https://theindosphere.com/khudiram-bose/Khudiram Bose was a Bengali revolutionary hanged at eighteen for his role in the 1908 Muzaffarpur bombing, one of the earliest attempts to assassinate a British official in colonial India.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lala-lajpat-rai/https://theindosphere.com/lala-lajpat-rai/A Punjabi nationalist leader, writer and one of the "Lal-Bal-Pal" trio of assertive Congress leaders in the early twentieth century, whose death followed injuries sustained during a protest against the Simon Commission in 1928.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/lord-mountbatten/https://theindosphere.com/lord-mountbatten/Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma (1900-1979), was the last Viceroy of British India, who oversaw the negotiated transfer of power and the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, and then served briefly as independent India's first Governor-General.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/michael-odwyer/https://theindosphere.com/michael-odwyer/Michael O'Dwyer was Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab from 1913 to 1919, whose administration approved and publicly defended the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of April 1919, and who was assassinated in London in 1940 by Udham Singh in retaliation.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/montagu-chelmsford-reforms/https://theindosphere.com/montagu-chelmsford-reforms/The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms were a set of constitutional changes to British Indian governance, announced in 1917 and enacted as the Government of India Act 1919, that introduced limited provincial self-government through "dyarchy" while retaining ultimate authority in British hands.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMThttps://theindosphere.com/morley-minto-reforms/https://theindosphere.com/morley-minto-reforms/The Morley-Minto reforms, enacted as the Indian Councils Act of 1909, enlarged Indian representation on British Indian legislative councils and introduced separate electorates for Muslims.Mon, 31 Aug 2026 18:51:17 GMT