Anuradhapura

Anuradhapura was the capital of Sri Lanka's first major unified kingdom, a Buddhist state on the island's north-central plain that endured, according to the traditional chronology preserved in the island's own historical literature, from 377 BCE until its conquest by the Chola Empire in 1017 CE. Much of what is known of the kingdom's history derives from two Pali-language chronicles compiled by Buddhist monks, the Dipavamsa and the more comprehensive Mahavamsa, both of which combine historical record with religious narrative and are read by modern historians alongside archaeological and epigraphic evidence.

Founding

According to the Mahavamsa, Anuradhapura was established as the seat of a unified Sinhalese monarchy by King Pandukabhaya in 377 BCE, following a period in which the island was divided among regional chieftains. Pandukabhaya is credited with laying out the city, constructing reservoirs and fortifications, and establishing the administrative foundations that allowed Anuradhapura to remain the island's capital for close to fourteen centuries.

The Introduction of Buddhism

Anuradhapura's identity as a Buddhist kingdom dates to the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa, traditionally placed in the 3rd century BCE, when the monk Mahinda — described in the Mahavamsa as a son of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, though the precise relationship is debated — arrived at nearby Mihintale and converted the king to Buddhism. The nun Sanghamitta subsequently brought a sapling of the Bodhi tree from Bodh Gaya, said to have been planted at Anuradhapura as the Sri Maha Bodhi, which remains an active site of pilgrimage and is often cited as among the oldest continuously documented trees in the world. Devanampiya Tissa built the Thuparamaya, traditionally regarded as Sri Lanka's first stupa, establishing a pattern of royal religious patronage that continued through most of the kingdom's history.

Dutugemunu and the Unification of the Island

The Mahavamsa's most celebrated narrative concerns King Dutugemunu, who reigned in the 2nd century BCE and is remembered for defeating Elara, a Tamil ruler from South India who had held Anuradhapura and much of the surrounding region for several decades and whom the chronicle itself, notably, portrays as a just ruler despite his non-Buddhist origin. Dutugemunu's campaign, culminating in single combat with Elara according to the traditional account, is presented in the Mahavamsa as a war fought in defense of Buddhism, and Dutugemunu subsequently commissioned the Ruwanwelisaya stupa, one of the kingdom's most significant Buddhist monuments.

Later Rulers and Political Consolidation

Anuradhapura's monarchy produced a long sequence of rulers who alternately strengthened its infrastructure, defended it against South Indian incursions, and extended its religious patronage. Valagamba, in the 1st century BCE, recovered the throne after a period of Tamil occupation and is associated with the Dambulla cave temple complex. Vasabha, in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, is credited with constructing large numbers of irrigation reservoirs. Mahasena, in the late 3rd century, built the Jetavanaramaya stupa, at over 100 meters among the tallest brick structures of the ancient world. Dhatusena, in the 5th century, built the Kala Wewa reservoir and is traditionally linked to the Avukana Buddha, a large rock-cut standing image. Sena II, in the 9th century, led a successful campaign into South India against Pandya and Chola forces, illustrating the kingdom's periodic capacity to project power beyond the island.

Relations with South Indian Dynasties

Anuradhapura's history was shaped throughout by its relations with the dynasties of South India. Its Buddhist identity itself traces to Mauryan-era contact through Mahinda's mission; later centuries brought a mixture of trade, cultural exchange, and recurring conflict with the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms, and an increasingly fraught relationship with the Chola Empire, whose repeated invasions culminated in the conquest of Anuradhapura in 1017 CE under the Chola emperor Rajaraja I, an event that brought the kingdom's history as an independent capital to an end and led to the transfer of the Sinhalese political center to Polonnaruwa.

Religious and Architectural Legacy

Anuradhapura developed into one of the principal centers of Theravada Buddhist scholarship in Asia, anchored by the Mahavihara monastery, while the rival Abhayagiri monastery became a major center of Mahayana-influenced Buddhist practice, together housing a monastic population that historical accounts describe as running into the thousands. Hindu temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Murugan were also built in the city over the course of its history, reflecting continuing exchange with South India. Alongside its stupas and monasteries, the kingdom is noted for large-scale hydraulic engineering, including major reservoirs such as Tissa Wewa, Kala Wewa, and Minneriya Wewa, many of which remain in agricultural use today.

One of the fullest outside accounts of the kingdom at its height comes from the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian, who spent about two years in Anuradhapura around 411–412 CE and described a large, prosperous city with thousands of monks, richly decorated monasteries, and elaborate public Buddhist ceremonies, in his travel record generally known in English as A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms. Archaeological surveys of the city's remains, including its concentric defensive walls and moats, indicate that at its peak Anuradhapura ranked among the largest urban settlements in South Asia, a scale that later contributed to its inclusion among the ancient world's notable planned cities.

Trade and Economy

Anuradhapura's position in the Indian Ocean made it a significant node in regional and long-distance trade, exporting cinnamon, gemstones, pearls, and elephants. Archaeological finds at the site, including Roman coins and imported ceramics, attest to trade connections extending to South India, China, and, via intermediary routes, the Mediterranean world.

Fall to the Cholas

Chola pressure on Sri Lanka intensified through the 10th century, and in 1017 CE Rajaraja I's forces captured Anuradhapura, incorporating the kingdom's core territory, known as Rajarata, into the Chola Empire and prompting the relocation of Sinhalese political authority to Polonnaruwa, which became the island's next major capital. Anuradhapura's monuments were inscribed collectively as the Sacred City of Anuradhapura, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in 1982, and the site remains an active place of Buddhist pilgrimage.